Walden opens with Thoreau’s explanation of his two-year independent living project on Walden Pond, which spanned from 1845 to 1847. He illuminates his desire to live a solitary, simple life outside of civilization. Over the course of these two years, Thoreau describes his experiences including his immersion in nature, the process of growing his own food, and the pleasure he derives from contemplating the beauty of the woods. He also reflects on the most basic elements of human subsistence—food, shelter, clothing, and fuel—and takes inventory of the essentials one needs to survive. 

Thoreau worries that working men have surrendered their personal autonomy to the demands of a capitalist society. He explains that capitalism hypnotizes men into pursuing empty status symbols and fleeting pleasures that remove them from their most natural state. He believes that most men spend their lives in a state of “quiet desperation” (14), numbly toiling away just to pay for their food and homes. 

Thoreau resists this life by casting aside all unnecessary luxuries. Instead of renting, he builds his own home. Instead of purchasing food, he forages in the woods and grows beans and vegetables. Hoping to demonstrate that it is possible to live well with very little money, he provides a painstaking account of everything he spends. 

Thoreau advocates for a simple, primarily plant-based diet. He stresses that humans do not need the rich foods and luxury items they have been taught to crave. Offering examples from his own minimalistic “entertaining” habits with visitors, Thoreau illustrates that people can be reconditioned to set aside material comforts. When people renounce these comforts, Thoreau believes they will find much deeper, spiritual nourishment. 

Thoreau occasionally encounters others in the woods, including the woodsman Alex Therien—who fascinates Thoreau with his “animalistic” perspective—and Irish immigrant John Field—whom Thoreau harshly criticizes for living an impoverished existence, slavishly pursuing luxuries. From time to time, Thoreau ventures into Concord to converse with the locals. Generally speaking, he is more satisfied by his communion with nature on Walden Pond and sometimes dismayed by his human encounters.

Thoreau finds great peace observing animals in the woods. He often compares them to humans, hoping to gain some insight into their natural behavior. He also notes signs of human encroachment upon the environment, from the wailing of the Fitchburg Railroad to the gunshots from a local military training post. 

Over the course of Walden, Thoreau poetically contemplates the beauty and mystery of the pond, framing it as a metaphor for the depth and resilience of the human spirit and observing the ways it changes and adapts through the seasons. Departing from Walden Pond, Thoreau considers all he has learned. Amidst the vibrant renewal of spring, he reflects on the importance of forging one’s own independent path in life. He posits that when humans embrace their natural selves, they free themselves from the unsatisfying strictures of civilization. He emphasizes the possibilities for spiritual change, regeneration, and new growth, thus situating Walden as a key text in the transcendentalist movement.