While Chapters 1-3 focused on what “they say” in rhetorical situations, Chapters 4-7 shift to what “I say”—what the writer has to say in the context of their argumentative writing.

Graff and Birkenstein acknowledge that many writers may feel unconfident when writing about topics outside of their personal expertise. They write that, while they are “no substitute for expertise” (56), strong rhetorical patterns that exist outside of a specific field knowledge are what wins arguments.

The authors introduce the three “most recognizable” responses to outside arguments: agreement, disagreement, and a mix of both. They remind their readers that it is important to take an explicit position on their sources as soon as they introduce them. Otherwise, their readers may get frustrated and confused.

Graff and Birkenstein address the concern that the three “I say” categories may flatten a complex argument:

We would argue, however, that the more complex and subtle your argument is, and the more it departs from the conventional ways people think, the more your readers will need to be able to place it on their mental map in order to process the complex details you present (57).