Snyder starts Chapter 4 by discussing Vladimir Putin’s ideological use of historical narratives to forge a sense of unity between Russia and Ukraine. Putin claims an uninterrupted spiritual and cultural unity dating back to the baptism of Volodymyr/Valdemar of Kyiv over a millennium ago. Putin’s rhetoric claims that this shared heritage transcends any modern political authority, advocating for a vision of eternal Russia that includes Ukraine as an inseparable part. This rhetoric intensified around 2013, as Ukraine neared an association agreement with the EU, which Russia vehemently opposed, viewing it as a threat to its historical sphere of influence. Snyder illustrates how various historical events, including the shifting allegiances and borders over the centuries, contribute to the current Ukrainian identity, which is distinct from the Russian one.

Snyder argues that Ukrainian history exemplifies a broader theme in modern European history—the transition from empire to independent nation-states. Central to this transition is the question of how regions once colonized by empires, such as Ukraine during the Soviet and Nazi occupations, navigate post-imperial realities. Ukraine’s fertile lands made it a prime target for exploitation, leading to immense human suffering and loss during the 20th century.