Not until the 20th century did researchers understand the causes of the failure of skin grafts and organ transplants. Researchers during World War II found that shared organs worked best on twins. The medical profession was on its way to considering the role of tissue rejection. In San Francisco, Drs. Dick Lower and Norman Shumway teamed up in the 1950s. Both were interested in transplants. Shumway wanted to test the technique of using extreme cold to treat damaged organs, including the heart. He had kept dogs’ hearts viable during operations via this technique, which he learned in Minnesota.

In April 1955, President Eisenhower experienced angina, resulting from a blockage in his left coronary artery. Because the president was transparent about his health condition, Americans received a “crash course on the heart” (53). This raised awareness about heart disease, diet, and exercise throughout the country.

Between 1953 and 1964, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) conducted secret experiments in the San Francisco area, using lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) on the human brain. In so doing, the agency violated human rights. Another example of an egregious human rights violation was the Tuskegee Syphilis Study which left hundreds of African American men untreated for the fatal disease even though treatments were available.