During the 18th century, a fundamental transition in birth and mortality trends accelerated population growth at unprecedented rates. Additionally, the growing integration of the human web transformed the basis of politics from monarchy to representative government. This primarily resulted from the increasing influence of wealthy merchants and landowners who resented taxes. Revolutions reverberated throughout the Atlantic world and encouraged the rise of nationalism, transforming the global political order by conferring greater power to governments that could bolster state sovereignty through national solidarity.

The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century began in England and spread quickly though unevenly, transforming humans to a high-energy society based on fossil fuels. As the Industrial Revolution spread throughout Europe and to the US, it spawned an age of imperialism: Industrial powers leveraged modern methods of mass production to enhance their military strength and overtake African and Asian societies. In addition, the shift to industrialism had a profound impact on the nature of work and prompted the emergence of social, ideological, and religious reorganizations throughout the world.

While early industrialization intensified the demand for commodities and greatly expanded enslavement and serfdom, the moral, economic, and political currents of society soon rendered forced labor untenable.