Mencius is a philosophical text based on the thought and teachings of fourth-century BCE Confucian Chinese philosopher Mencius, or Mengzi. According to the latest scholarship, written in the late fourth century BCE by Mencius’s disciples from notes on what Mencius said, it details conversations he had with various kings, rulers, and officials. These discussions cover a range of topics, from moral and political philosophy to human nature and selfhood. The following guide uses the translation from the Chinese by D.C. Lau and the 2004 Penguins Classic edition of this translation. This edition also includes supplementary material on the life of Mencius, ancient Chinese history, and the composition of the text of Mencius.

Mencius was formed in the shadow of what is known as “the warring states period.” Spanning the years from 475 to 221 BCE, this was a time of great conflict and instability, as well as change and reform, in China, in which rival states vied for power. This context informs the central question of Mencius, which asks how, socially and individually, one can recover peace and morality from chaos. Mencius addresses the question of how “the way,” a natural order in which all elements of life cohere harmoniously, can be recovered from a world of apparently ubiquitous warfare and suffering.

Mencius addresses this question in a variety of ways. It is divided into seven Books, each with two Parts of around 10 pages, and each book takes the form of Mencius outlining aspects of his philosophy with, and in response to, various significant interlocutors of his day. Sections range from one-line aphorisms to more extended discussions continuing for several pages. Further, while there is no strict logic to the section arrangement, and certain ideas recur throughout the text, the foregrounding of specific themes distinguishes the different books and parts.

In Book I, Mencius introduces the idea of benevolence as a means to recovering “the way.” If individuals and rulers prioritize the common good, rather than selfish advantage, it is possible to have a just and harmonious social order and happiness. In Book II, Mencius addresses the question of how such benevolence is possible. This is the case, he claims, because every human being possesses compassion. Compassion, or sensitivity to the suffering of others, can, if properly cultivated, develop into a fully-fledged sense of morality and benevolence.

Book III stresses that under the way, there must still be rulers and ruled as well as social hierarchy. Mencius appeals to the division of labor to justify this point. Just as a good carpenter must specialize in carpentry and then buy his cloth rather than trying to make everything himself, so must the ruler specialize in ruling, rather than trying as well to farm or fish. Book IV in turn makes the argument that good governance is achieved by looking back to, and respecting, past great kings and ancestors. Thus, the way is temporal: It is connected to an understanding of, and reverence for, the past.

Book V gives more specific details about the practices that constitute the harmonious social order. The precise role of family and marriage, as well as social etiquette, social intercourse, and friendship, are explored, as is gift giving and the importance of respecting rites or customs. Again, trying to ground his belief that the way is achievable, Mencius argues in Book VI for his position that human nature is essentially good. He does so in response to the philosopher Kao Tzu, who claimed that human nature is amoral: neither good nor bad. Finally, the last book, VII, deals with issues of fate, destiny, and death. How we respond to these forces is discussed in connection with asceticism. The proper attitude toward the blows of fate is neither to adopt resignation and passivity nor to rail against them. Instead, the ideal response lies in cultivating an awareness of and openness to our destiny.