Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was one of the seminal figures of the Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in 17th- and 18th-century Europe that sought to organize social life around principles of reason and science. He is best known for his advocacy of radical democracy in works such as The Social Contract (1762), which opens with the famous line “man was born free, but is everywhere in chains.” Whereas other Enlightenment philosophers emphasized property rights or representation as the key to achieving political freedom, Rousseau insisted on citizens playing the most direct role possible in the management of their affairs. The Discourse on Inequality provides a philosophical justification for this position by showing how human beings thrive when they are self-sufficient and least subject to external restraints. Later in his life, Rousseau was invited to apply his ideas to the formation of a new Polish constitution, the first modern constitution in Europe.

Rousseau’s other literary works made him immensely famous, and infamous. In 1761, he published the novel Julie, a major contribution to the Romantic movement. Its celebration of emotion over social decorum was wildly popular with readers. His autobiographical Confessions scandalized readers with its descriptions of his sexual exploits and his abandoning five children.