Between 1500 and 1850 CE, Western European powers, leveraging their superior naval capabilities, embarked on widespread colonial ventures, establishing their dominion across the globe. In regions like North America and Australia, Europeans virtually supplanted Indigenous populations, while in South America and sub-Saharan Africa, they imposed themselves as a ruling elite, leaving the native populace in a state of subjugation or servitude. However, in more organized and technologically advanced societies like China and the Islamic heartlands, European influence manifested in subtler, more complex interactions, significantly colored by Europe’s intricate historical relations with the Muslim world.

The initial European incursion into the Islamic realm was predominantly commercial, with traders rather than armies marking the first points of contact. Notably, Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama’s arrival in India exemplified this trend, as his small expedition sought and secured permission to establish a trading post. This period also saw European military technology and expertise being sought after by powerful Islamic states, as evidenced by the English Sherley brothers’ engagement with Safavid Persia.

As the centuries progressed, the interactions between the Muslim world and Europe became increasingly intricate and consequential. The Ottoman Empire engaged in intermittent conflicts with European nations but maintained a relationship characterized by trade and diplomatic engagements even amidst warfare.