In the 1960s, “half of the white residents left the Bronx” (4) because a highway was built directly through the middle of it decades prior. Robert Moses, the planner who made this decision, had no regard for the sixty thousand people who lived there. Their homes and businesses were bulldozed, and slumlords in the area forced out tenants and burned their own apartment buildings for insurance money. What was left was destruction and emptiness. Employment dropped dramatically, and youth unemployment skyrocketed to 60%. It was under these conditions of no work that hip-hop culture began to develop.

As Afro-Caribbean, Latinx, and African American people began moving into neighborhoods previously occupied by Jewish, Italian, and Irish families, the white youth who remained began forming gangs to hold their position there. In response, brown and Black youth formed their own gangs, “first in self-defense, then sometimes for power, sometimes for kicks” (4). Estimates started at one hundred gangs that formed. Youth who were displaced or neglected after the destruction of the Bronx found refuge in gangs, and two of the largest and most feared were the Ghetto Brothers and the Savage Skulls, who were both Puerto Rican. Racial, class, and ethnic segregation became prominent in the Bronx again.

The Ghetto Brothers, started by Benjy Melendez, began as a family of brothers who were forced to move after the development of the highway. Benjy was a natural leader who could hold the attention of a crowd and guided his gang to over a thousand members. Benjy named his friend Carlos Suarez president, and the two “became a formidable core” (6). Together, the two led the gang to effect change in their community. They started a breakfast program, spoke out about police abuse and poor healthcare, and eventually changed their name to The South Bronx Defensive Unit, vowing to end their gang activity and become creators of peace. Cornell Benjamin (known as Black Benjie), a half-Puerto Rican and half-African American man, was named the Peace Counsellor.

By 1971, gang turfs were increasing, and the police were cracking down on gangs, such as the Young Lords and Black Panthers, both of which were political groups trying to better their communities and recruit more members. Eventually, they were offered the opportunity to establish their organization in a physical building. However, the Ghetto Brothers’ strides toward peace did not mean they were immune to violence. One night, gangs are amassing in a neighborhood park and Black Benjie takes some brothers to go try and make peace. He arrives with no weapons and tries to talk to the gangs there, but they turn on him and beat him to death. Suarez organizes a revenge party, and they find the man who killed Black Benjie. Just before Suarez shoots him, Melendez interferes and insists that Black Benjie would not have wanted them to retaliate. The next day, reporters gather at the Ghetto Brothers’ clubhouse expecting to hear of their revenge plot. Instead, Melendez tells them they do not plan to take revenge at all. Instead, “after Black Benjie was buried in an emotional ceremony, the Ghetto Brothers issued a call for the truce meeting to be held on the evening of December 8 at the Bronx Boys Club” (10). The meeting was held to a wide media audience. Arguments were fought, peace was called for, and respect was agreed upon. However, this meeting was mostly a media show, and the Ghetto Brothers held a subsequent private meeting later on between all the gang presidents. They agreed to the truce together, talking through the death of Black Benjie. Despite this agreement, “many did not want to see change” (13). Afeni Shakur, a Black Panther leader, was acquitted in court along with many others after being charged with conspiracy to bomb police buildings. She gave birth to her son, Tupac Amaru Shakur, who would later become one of hip-hop’s most renowned rappers. President Nixon declared a war on drugs, resulting in the unjust arrests of countless people of color. The NYPD formed the Bronx Youth Gang Task Force, designed to instill fear and separation into the gangs there.

On the other hand, the Ghetto Brothers were offered “the chance to record their original compositions in a real studio” (13) and realize their long-time passion for music. They made their first album, Ghetto Brothers Power Fuerza. Just a few years prior, James Brown introduced the sound now known as funk. His music evolved over the coming years, “merging African, African American, and Afro Cuban sounds and rhythms into impossibly funky songs” (13). He began to start rapping in his songs, and radio stations often accused his music of being “too Black” (14). It was James Brown’s music that inspired the Ghetto Brothers to create their unique sound, inspired by Brown, the Beach Boys, the Beatles, and their own Latinx influence. Youth in the Bronx adored the music, and the Ghetto Brothers held Friday block parties to pump out their sounds. All the while, “gangs had begun dissolving” (14), and the youth were turning their attention toward music instead.

Clive Campbell (also known as DJ Kool Herc) and his sister Cindy were born to Nettie and Keith Campbell in Trenchtown, Kingston, Jamaica (the same area Bob Marley was from). When political violence became too much to withstand, the family immigrated to New York City and found themselves out of place. Clive remembers arriving “all hicked out, got a corduroy coat on, with the snow hat with the flip-up-and-come-over-your-ears” (18). He recalls being bullied for his clothing and accent, but he managed to find his place through music. Clive attended house parties with his mother and heard voices like James Brown and Aretha Franklin. He would sing along and learned how to speak and sing without his Jamaican accent. Graffiti culture was on the rise, and Clive joined in, creating his own tag “CLYDE AS KOOL” (19) along with his friend. The “kool” came from a cigarette ad, and the Clyde came from people constantly mistaking his name. At the same time, Clive was a star basketball player and runner, and people referred to him as Hercules “for his bullish power drives to the hoop” (20). This was where Clive got the “Herc” portion of his soon-to-be DJ name. Once he decided to drop the “Clyde,” he became Kool Herc.

Herc’s passion for music evolved into DJing when he found himself hosting parties with his sister in their apartment rec room after Herc finally convinces his father to let him use the Shure sound system the family has by wiring it to play louder and clearer. The two made $300 from their first party as Herc played soul and funk to youth of the Bronx. These parties became monthly events, and Herc even managed to throw outdoor parties. He was strict about pulling the plug if any fights or beefs occurred, and as a result, they never did. Herc’s friend Coke La Rock assisted him in creating the best possible sound system and infusing Jamaican sounds into his music, distinguishing Herc from other DJs. They also developed their own slang they would throw at parties: “My mellow is in the house!” (21). Herc paid attention to the dancers at his parties, noting that they seemed to get particularly enthusiastic during the instrumental break of a song. As a result, “Herc zeroed in on the heart of the record—the break” (22). Herc began looking for songs with potent breaks, and his father advised him to scrub the labels off his records so people would not steal his mixes.

Herc developed a new technique he called “the Merry-Go-Round” (22), in which he would play a song until its break, que up a second record at the beginning of the song’s break, and play them in succession, effectively extending what was a two-minute break into four. It was almost addictive for the dancers, as Herc recalls that once he started playing only breaks, “they always wanted to hear breaks after breaks after breaks after breaks” (22). Herc began inspiring others to take up his craft, such as Sharon Green and Joseph Saddler, who both attended his parties and decided to start their own. Herc named the people in his musical clique “Herculords” (23). Gangs evolved into DJ and breakdance crews, which Herc was happy to have at his jams. Herc would give shout outs to anyone and everyone, and he created a place where everyone wanted to be. Kids who came for the Merry-Go-Round would have breakdance competitions with each other, and Herc “called them break boys, b-boys for short” (24). Herc also began landing club deals, and “by 1976, he was the number one draw in the Bronx” (24). Music began transforming the Bronx into a place for music instead of a division of gangs. Grandmaster Flash emerged on the scene in 1977, along with others, but nobody could compare to Herc, his system, and his unique sounds. However, on July 13, 1977, the Bronx, along with many other areas of New York, experienced an almost two-day power outage. Looting and arson were committed on a mass scale, but people did not seem to be hurting each other. Some of the looting included sound systems, which resulted in many new crews emerging afterward. Herc began seeing the competition that was inevitable, as DJs in Harlem and other areas of the Bronx started outperforming him with their new sound systems and sounds. DJ Hollywood boasted “high-powered disco rhymes” (26), and a new club called Harlem World started hosting various talent. As the music scene moved downtown, Herc stayed behind; he did not feel like he fit into the new “shoe culture” (38), which was now outdoing his familiar “sneaker culture” (26). Herc was the victim of a stabbing months later, but he survived and created a legacy that would be the catalyst for Hip-hop; “Herc had stripped down and let go of everything, save the most powerful basic elements—the rhythm, the motion, the voice, the name” (27).

Afrika Bambaataa grew up in the Southeast Bronx in an area of housing projects. He was sent to an all-white high school in 1971 “as part of a court-ordered desegregation mandate” (28) along with many other youths, and this began a race war between them and the white gangs in the area. However, by 1981, Bambaataa was using his experiences to further not only his music but also to break down barriers between gangs. He became a pillar for the borough, brave enough to enter other turfs and forge bonds. Bambaataa formed an organization not unlike the Ghetto Brothers’ called the Bronx River Organization. He insisted that the group not start violence. Bambaataa was always blasting music out of his apartment windows, which DJ Jazzy Jay (Jayson Byas) would ride by and listen to. Jay DJed for Disco King Mario before transitioning into joining Bambaataa’s crew. The two hosted block parties in Bronx River every weekend, and even the local police were supportive. Jazzy Jay explains that they preferred them partying rather than “beating each other upside the head like they used to do in the gang days” (30). Bambaataa was inspired by DJ Kool Herc’s focus on breaks and worked inclusion and open-mindedness into his music. Bambaataa began creating unconventional mixes, such as combining the Monkees with a speech from Malcolm X. Soon, he was known as the “Master of Records” (30), mashing up music from across the globe. His parties became a place to “move the body, the mind, and the soul” (30).

The film Zulu (1964) had a significant impact on Bambaataa. Unlike the white heroes he was used to seeing on the screen, the film depicted the siege of Rorke’s Drift in 1879 in South Africa. The Zulu tribe rose up against the imperialists and set their camp on fire. Bambaataa was inspired by the Black solidarity in the film and by watching them “fight for their freedom and their land” (31). The film inspired his later formation of his group The Zulu Nation. Bambaataa won an essay contest and a trip to Africa and Europe. While in Africa, he witnessed the power, strength, and utility of Black people—something he was taught was not possible in America. Bambaataa was convinced he could rally people in his own community to effect change too. In 1975, Bambaataa’s cousin was shot and killed by police in a shootout. A month later, a 14-year-old Black boy was shot in the back after being caught joyriding in a stolen car. Youth in the Bronx were ready to cast their rage against the authorities, but Bambaataa and other community leaders urged an alternative: organizing people to end violence instead. Thus, Afrika Bambaataa and the Zulu Nation was born, and the Bronx started going back to “an era of style, celebration, and optimism” (32). Dance and movement were crucial aspects of the movement, and these dancers became known as the Zulu Kings and Zulu Queens. Bambaataa wanted to spread peace further and bridge the divide between the African and Puerto Rican gangs. He began holding parties that were advertised to all of them as a place of peace and unity, and youth from both sides began attending in droves. Bambaataa spoke to the youth, explaining that the government put them all in here together to fight and destroy each other. This message got through, and “with the Universal Zulu Nation, hip-hop had its first institution, and its enduring message: peace, unity, love, and having fun” (34).

The early Hip-hop scene was not exclusively for boys; indeed, before the famous Bronx DJs, Black girls were creating their own rhymes in the form of jump-rope routines. The rhymes they invented were rhythmical, witty, and born out of teamwork. At the same time, they would perform complicated dances, competing with one another. Male MCs often heard these rhymes and incorporated them into their own music. Girls were always in high attendance at block parties as well, and they were often the inventors of fashion. Afrika Bambaataa often hired female MCs, such as Queen Kenya and Zulu Queen Lisa Lee. All-female crews also formed, including the particularly well known Mercedes Ladies, which consisted of 21 women. Many women found a place within Bambaataa’s Zulu Nation, as it served as a family, an outlet for their anger, and a place to hone and showcase their musical skills. Bambaataa was a spokesman for women, tearing down stereotypes and disrespect; in fact, “he made everyone address all the women that were with the Nation as a Queen” (37). Queen Lisa Lee was taken under Bambaataa’s wing and given a chance to perform her rhymes in front of large audiences. She could rap with or without music: “The blast from the past, the perv in every word / Super female rapper yes the best you heard” (37). Women in the Hip-hop scene “knew they had to rap better than most of the guys just to break in the door” (38), but Hip-hop was always for everyone.

In the mid-1970s, the Bronx became a “tropic zone of a new culture” (39). The Zulu Nation in the east, the Brothers Disco in the north, the disco DJs in Harlem, and countless others were sparking the creation of new music, new attitudes, and a new sense of unity among people of color. Richie Colón, known as Crazy Legs, was the leader of the Rock Steady Crew. In 1976, he was invited to his first schoolyard jam. He became immersed in the atmosphere and recalls witnessing “the rise of hip-hop’s ‘four elements’—b-boying, DJing, MCing, and graffiti” (40). Although the media and those in power were not yet interested, people involved in the early Hip-hop scene had something to prove to one another instead: originality and boldness. Bubbling below the surface was the dream that perhaps one day, “big important people [might] stand up and take notice themselves, offer you money, give you power, or try to crush your very soul” (40).

A famous tagger, TAKI 183, earned a place in the New York Times in 1971, sparking the popularity of graffiti. The first graffiti association was organized by Hugo Martinez in 1972 and was known as the United Graffiti Artists. Graffiti became a means of earning status and gaining fame. People would undertake daring feats to put their tags in seemingly impossible places. Graffiti art was taken up by youth of all races and backgrounds, with youth often banding together to teach and help each other spread their art. LADY PINK, a female graffiti artist, recalls the sexism she experienced coming up on the scene. She fought her way in and made a name for herself by completing various trials assigned by the leaders of the scene. She climbed a 10-foot fence to graffiti a train and regularly had to show that she was painting the art herself. Boys had to prove themselves as well and prove they were strong enough to stand up to the task. Ironically, each time the city fought back and cleaned the graffiti, it just came back multiplied. More and more kids joined the scene, and those who were already there improved their skills; “Homely letters grew outlines, colors, patterns, highlights, depth, shadows, arrows. Names were bubblized, gangsterized, mechanized. Letters dissected, bisected, cross-sected, fused, bulged, curved, dipped, clipped, chipped, and disintegrated” (43). Projects became larger and bolder, and style became more and more of a tool of influence.

The b-boy dance burst out with the Bronx jams, and youth began travelling to different areas of the borough to find new crews to battle. The dance become a serious art form and social gathering, where youth would b-boy on concrete or parks with glass on the ground. Jazzy Jay recalls, “you’d just wipe the glass off your elbows and go right back in” (44). B-boy dancing was individual and a way to establish a reputation. In its original form, b-boying consisted mainly of “top-rocking […] Bouncing around, pivoting, turning, twists, front-sweeps” (44-45). Arms remained in a fighting stance because b-boying was seen as a battle and a rite of passage. B-boy dances could either settle or start beefs between gangs, as it acted as a symbol of dominance. B-boying had indirect influences in capoeira, rumba, and kung fu, but is its own unique form of dance developed in its own time. It evolved rapidly, with new styles popping up weekly as competition grew fierce. B-boying began to fade out, but in the next generation Crazy Legs revived the Rock Steady Crew and brought it back into the spotlight. He and his crew travelled around to parks and skating rinks, showing off their moves and inspiring the new generation to form their own crews. The crew’s nostalgia for the b-boying and the mid-70s Bronx culture “would indelibly shape the hip-hop generation. They had revived the dance, canonized old moves, and invented bold new ones” (48).

Joseph Saddler, originally inspired by DJ Kool Herc’s block parties, began his journey with nothing but his style to his name. A child of a large family of immigrants, he was interested in music from a very young age. He found used radios and speakers in abandoned cars and taught himself how to manipulate and create electronics. Joseph Saddler later became Grandmaster Flash but not before he came up with his Quick Mix Theory. The crowd did not initially react well to his new technique, so he added vocal accompanist rapper Robert Keith “Cowboy” Wiggins. They played parks and clubs and established a reputation that eventually exceeded DJ Kool Herc. Grandmaster Flash ended up with four MCs, and rap started to evolve at a rapid pace; “it could be practiced any place at any time. It was portable with endless possibilities. It was the perfect art form for a generation of youths who had found traditional societal avenues for self-expression all but cut off” (50).

MCing was growing into an art form with Cowboy, Grandmaster Flash’s first MC, leading the way. His calls to the audience ignited crowds and brought a new energy to the parties: “Throw your hands in the air and wave ‘em like you just don’t care!” (50). Knowing how to improvise and keep the crowd moving was a special skill that early rappers considered essential to their craft. Kidd Creole, another of Flash’s MCs, entertained the crowds with his adaptations of traditional Black rhymes, and Melle Mel “commanded audiences like a preacher with his deep baritone” (51). Together, they developed routines and worked off each other’s rhymes. Together, they became the Furious Five and were known for their blends of classic rhymes with modern songs, all while adding their own takes to the music. Crews began recording their music on tapes and “played, traded, copied, and passed around” (53) their music to everyone they could.

Sharon Green was the first female MC in hip-hop. She came from a crew called Brother’s Disco, and her nickname was Sha-Rock. Sharon started out as a b-girl and “described herself as the Nine Crew’s secret weapon” (53). She was inspired after hearing DJ Kool Herc and his crew perform, and she became one of hip-hop’s most influential MCs. Sharon was “tall and fly” (54) and dressed with a sense of astute fashion. DMC of Run-DMC describes hearing Sharon’s music for the first time as “life changing” (54) and was deeply influenced by her work. Run-DMC would be pivotal in bringing rap to the masses in the coming years. Hip-hop was here to stay.

By the end of the 1970s, rap was no longer exclusive to the Bronx. It spread through the other boroughs of New York and even into a Broadway musical, Runaways. However, another perception of this era was held by the original rappers like Jazzy Jay, who recalls a drought in which the fundamentals of hip-hop seemed to be fading away. The youth who grew up with the music of DJ Kool Herc and Afrika Bambaataa were growing up and moving on. Rap moved into the clubs and off the streets, “depriving b-boys and DJs of their competitive setting” (56). Grandmaster Flash moved into mixing and blending, and in the clubs, rap was becoming more sophisticated with new techniques still popping up. DJ Hollywood held different types of parties, aimed at older crowds and a more dressed-up atmosphere. Rappers had to go with the flow or be left behind. DJs also wanted to make a living rather than just play for reputation. DJ Hollywood could play five shows in one night, using their sound systems rather than his own and only transporting his records. Record producers began scouting clubs, trying to determine if rap could be their next financial move. Flash was skeptical about the record business, not believing that people would buy rap records. He relied on his shows to make money; “then in October of 1979, the game changed forever” (58).

The first rap group to sell a platinum record was Sugarhill Gang with “Rapper’s Delight.” This song, consisting of “partly stolen rhymes” (58), achieved this status largely because the men singing it had no reputation and nothing to lose. Sylvia Robinson, a Black indie record label owner, produced the record on the new Sugar Hill Records. It came together almost randomly, with Big Bank Hank being asked to audition one day and Master Gee and Wonder Mike being picked up along the way. The record was 15 minutes long, which astonished rappers who were used to three-hour shows, and the moment it was played in clubs the crowd loved it. “Rapper’s Delight” topped charts and became a worldwide sensation. In no time, people began imitating what they heard on the radio. It became the top-selling single at the time, “but to the Bronx heads, the whole record was a sham” (60). It lacked history, purpose, and a real message. The rappers who made it were randomly chosen and seemed not to have earned their place. Despite this skepticism, the record was accessible and approachable, and the hip-hop scene was transformed almost instantaneously. Record labels made deals, and Grandmaster Flash made his first record as well: “Suparappin.” Rap was changing, and it evolved from a dance scene with a live MC to an art form in which the MC was either the entire point or not even present at all. The year was 1980, and hip-hop’s b-boys, graffiti, and party lifestyle was dead, making way for an entirely new form of hip-hop.

In 1977, Jimmy Carter stood on Charlotte Street in the Bronx after the destruction and said, “I’m impressed by the spirit of hope and determination by the people to save what they have” (65). In 1980, Ronald Reagan stood there and said exactly the same thing. His “policies were wreaking havoc on Black and brown communities” (65), and re-segregation was rampant; hip-hop served as an opposing force to this division. Crazy Legs recalls that, in 1982, hip-hop helped break down barriers between races. Shows on TV began featuring b-boys and b-girls, DJs, and graffiti artists. Journalists and academics began paying attention to hip-hop. The “downtown white art scene” (66) started to blend with the uptown rap scene. One pivotal figure during this time was FAB 5 FREDDY, who was a rapper and graffiti artist that was able to bring the uptown and downtown scenes together; “he bridged the graffiti artists, DJs, and MCs with downtown art gallery owners, club promoters, and alternative press journalists” (66). Artists like Afrika Bambaataa and the Rock Steady Crew as well as the Zulu Nation DJs and MCs moved into the downtown club scene and art world. Graffiti art moved from wall to canvas.

There was one club that stood out above the rest in the early 1980s hip-hop scene: the Roxy. It opened in 1982, the same year hip-hop went global, and was run by Kool Lady Blue. It was a massive roller rink in Chelsea, decorated with graffiti murals and pounding with “tricky beats” (67). Blue rotated various MCs, including Grandmaster Flash, Jazzy Jay, and more. Attendees included Andy Warhol and Madonna. One night, Blue decided to screen a punk rock movie before the club opening, attracting white new-wave kids to the scene. When the movie ended and the hip-hop scene rolled in, the two mixed, and the club became a “legitimately mixed scene” (67). Crazy Legs recalls how nobody was really aware of how foundational the club and the music were at the time.

In April 1982, “Planet Rock,” an “electronic mashup of two Kraftwerk songs” (68), was recorded on the newest sound technology and released by Afrika Bambaataa. He made it for “the Blacks, Latinos, and the punk rockers” (68), but it caught on with the general public as well. This song helped shape the way techno, electronic, and rap evolved in the coming decades due to its use of electronic trance sounds mixed with rap and dramatic melodies. Afrika Bambaataa wanted to unite the world with music, and the impact of his “Planet Rock” record became one of the most impactful hip-hop records of all time. It was a true union of Black, brown, and white musical styles.

Wild Style, a movie showcasing the lives of youth in the New York City hip-hop scene, was released in 1982 as well by Charlie Ahearn and FAB 5 FREDDY. It was significant because “more than any other, Wild Style presented these New York City youth cultures as part of a vibrant, cohesive, unstoppable whole called hip-hop” (70) and featured the rap battles of Grand Wizzard Theodore’s Fantastic Five and Charlie Chase’s Cold Crush Brothers. Locals were invited to the shoot to party and dance to the music. The film premiered in Times Square in 1983 with a line down the block. B-boys and b-girls were finally seeing “their lives on screen” (73). With the graffiti art, breakdancing, and DJing/MCing, hip-hop was becoming its own culture. FAB 5 FREDDY was acutely aware that he was living on the brink of an entirely new art movement. Despite the recession and the lack of employment caused by Reagan’s economics, hip-hop was fast becoming one of the most popular forms of expression.