Chapter 8 traces the evolution of belief and unbelief over the last two centuries. He presents this evolution as occurring in three distinct phases, ultimately leading to a complex array of spiritual and moral options far exceeding those in the 18th century. At this point, an “exclusive humanist” alternative to Christianity emerged. This initial phase marks the establishment of a secular worldview that prioritizes human flourishing within a disenchanted world, leaving behind the idea of transcendence.

The second phase of this evolution involves further diversifying worldviews, prompted by critiques of orthodox religion and the new humanism. These critiques generate new positions, including radical forms of unbelief inspired by thinkers like Nietzsche, who reject traditional humanist values. This period was characterized by a “nova effect,” a proliferation of moral and spiritual options that extends far beyond the simple duality of belief versus unbelief.

In the third and more recent phase, the fragmented culture that initially emerged among elites becomes widespread, culminating in a society that embraces “authenticity” or expressive individualism. This ethos encourages individuals to find their paths to fulfillment, often independent of traditional institutions such as the church or state. The result is an intensified “nova effect,” leading to a “spiritual super-nova,” where several spiritual options coexist, creating a sense of spiritual instability.